Project Title : Regional Water and Soil Assessment for Managing Sustainable Agriculture
Project Number LWR1/95/07
Abstract :The research focuses on aspects of the water and nutrient cycles at the plot to regional scales. Key issues are water use efficiency, erosion, salinisation, soil structure and fertility decline. Existing data sets from field and catchment experiments, and remotely sensed data at regional scales, provide the basis for process based modelling developments across the Institutes involved. Indicators based on process understanding, and information systems technologies, are used to simplify the data sets and integrate information across these different scales. Based on conclusions drawn from this research, technology transfer can occur at the regional policy, management and operational levels in an integrated way.
2. Executive Summary
Title: Regional water and soil assessment for managing sustainable agriculture
Purpose and Context of the Project:
The postulate is that improved agricultural water use efficiency will lead to increased agricultural productivity and sustainability. Agricultural water use efficiency is determined by many factors including soil condition, water availability (rainfed or irrigation), physiological characteristics of plant species and management practice and skills. This study aims to establish and validate local and regional measures of water use efficiency and land degradation and convey findings to local farming groups. The methodology comprises a mix of techniques from collecting relevant and detailed plot data, establishing reliable spatial databases using survey data and remote sensing for extrapolation, computer modelling to predict water and solute balances and water use by crops. In addition, environmental indicators are developed as a practical means to assess land and water condition and trends at plot and catchment scales and as a means for technology transfer.
Names of Collaborating Researchers and Institutions:
The work is spread across 4 main laboratories and 5 main sites. The main project staff members are: in Australia, CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra (Dr Joe Walker, Dr Lu Zhang and Tim McVicar) and Adelaide (Dr Rob Fitzpatrick, Richard Merry, Dr Jim Cox, Phil Davies and Leonie Spouncer), Earth Observation Centre (Canberra - Dr David Jupp), in China the CAS laboratories at the Shijiazhuang Institute of Agricultural Modernisation (Prof. Liu Changming, Dr Hu Chungsheng, Dr Zhang Guanglu and Dr Wang Huixioa) and the Institute for Soil and Water Conservation (Yangling - Prof. Li Rui, Dr Liu Guobin, Dr Shao Ming'an and Dr Yang Qinke).
Results and Importance:
The time lines and outputs as stated in the proposal have been met as specified.
Highlights are:
1. Establishment of regional data bases of yield, rainfall and irrigation and remotely sensed data for 60,000 km2 of the North China Plain (NCP) from 1984 until 1996. Having access to these data bases have allowed a spatial information system to be developed to regionally monitor water use efficiency (WUE) for the 13 years.
2. Successful mid-term review meeting. The production of an ACIAR sponsored book, summarising the work undertaken during the 4 years of this project, was agreed to by all parties. Two days of discussion prior to the formal review provided an ideal forum for innovative scientific ideas to be discussed.
3. Development of a calculate-then-interpolate (CI) approach to regionally estimate moisture availability. This method uses AVHRR data in a novel way; as covariates for spatial interpolation. This technique inherently uses the high spatial density of remotely sensed data.
4. Successful process modelling in the NCP and on the Loess Plateau (LP) has captured the complex interactions governing water use, crop yield, water use efficiency and the effects of mulch and fertiliser. This process understanding underpinned the regional estimation of WUE for 60,000 km2 of the NCP from 1984 until 1996.
5. Methods and data bases have been established on the LP that allow assessment of the success of planned erosion control and vegetation planting. The methods have been developed to work within the constraints of data availability in an environment of topographic difficulty, where gully intensity and density are both extreme.
6. Measurements and analysis of seasonal changes in water content of duplex soils at the Keynes' catchment has shown that the causes of waterlogging are variable. The causes of waterlogging can be classified as: (a) perching of water on an abrupt B horizon with low hydraulic conductivity, (b) perching of water on a layer within the B or C horizon, which must have low hydraulic conductivity, or (c) seasonal rise in groundwaters. Thus the seasonal variation in waterlogging in catchments can be very difficult to predict. However, it is important to differentiate between the causes of waterlogging as they will have different impacts on pasture and crop yields.
7. Field measurements combined with modelling have shown the water use of pastures is variable in the Keynes' Catchment in the Mt Lofty Ranges and highly dependent on landscape position. Deep drainage on mid slopes was as high as 20% of annual rainfall under typical pastures that farmers sow. Overland and throughflow were less than 15% of annual rainfall.
8. Models that have been developed to assess the mobility of agricultural pollutants through soils to streams are always based on indices derived from soil chemical properties. However, the processes are also dependent on the catchment hydrology. Field measurements have shown that the pathways for water movement, specifically the residence times, are important in predicting the mobility of agricultural contaminants through soils.
9. The use of a datalogger for long-term, detailed measurements of soil redox (Eh) and temperature has helped interpret the soil and water processes associated with seasonal waterlogging in saline sulfidic discharge areas. These results indicate that much of the subsoil is a very hostile redox environment for roots for a considerable period of the year, likely to limit plant growth and transpiration, and therefore contribute to increased discharge. The vegetation that is present is very important for stabilising the area against erosion. Management of vegetation in these wetlands, including the introduction of other species, will need to be evaluated to properly understand and optimally manage the discharge areas. Should the area erode or drain, there are likely to be significant consequences in the release of salts, iron minerals and protons mobilising heavy metals into drainage lines. Relict sulfidic wetlands have been recognised in catchments with current saline sulfidic soils in discharge areas that are prone to salinity, sodicity and significant erosion.
10. New approaches have been developed for constructing mechanistic models of soil and water processes that explain and predict the processes giving rise to a range of complex and poorly understood acid sulfate, saline and sodic soils in catchments. These schematic process models illustrate the unique occurrence and formation of mineral precipitates (sideronatrite, natrojarosite and schwertmannite) in landscapes. The formation of these minerals is indicative of rapidly changing local environments and variations in pH and rates of Fe, S and Na mineralisation. These processes are important because they are used to develop biogeochemical dispersion models to describe spatial and temporal changes in soils that lead to degraded landscapes in the regions. The influence of these soils and their properties is far-reaching. Information on the type of saline acid sulfate soil and the mineralogy and geochemistry of the precipitates has potential to be used to identify and predict: (a) conditions of severe soil degradation, (b) conditions of poor water quality, and (c) the concealed presence of abundant sulfides in the bedrock.
11. We have developed a methodology to construct soil-landscape models for regional assessment of susceptibility to drainage/waterlogging, salinity and acidity/alkalinity in an 80 km2 area in the Mt. Lofty Ranges. Our methodology uses and integrates soils information, geology, vegetation, hydrology, terrain analysis and remotely sensed data (Landsat TM, AIRSAR) at multiple scales to act as checks and for refinement tools. Recognition of soil process patterns at toposequence scale (400 m within a 0.2 km2 key area) followed by controlled extrapolation of these patterns to catchments (2 km2) and regions (80 km2) is essentially the approach adopted in this project. We have produced a number of nested map products including "best estimate" maps of drainage/waterlogging, salinity and acidity/alkalinity for 2 km2 (catchment) and 80 km2 (regional) areas. Initial assessment of the results obtained show good qualitative agreement based on ground truthing from limited random site checks across the region. A significant outcome of this work was the formalisation of metadata for current Mt Torrens data sets using the ANZLIC metadata entry tool software
12. A composite regional scale assessment of catchment condition (a rating from good to poor) was produced by integrating the soil degradation maps with other landscape attributes (e.g. riparian vegetation, landcover and slope, etc). Extension of the catchment condition for work has taken place in the upper Torrens region where 230 catchments have now been rated by the same techniques previously applied to the 55 catchments in the Mount Torrens (80km2) region.
13. Several popular articles were published and public presentations given. The articles and public talks provided explanations of landscape function where saline, acid sulfate and sodic soil conditions exist and suggest farm and regional indicators that can be used for better management outcomes. This information was requested primarily by Landcare Groups in the Mt. Lofty Ranges, Dundas Tableland and on Eyre Peninsula. These publications and presentations provide significant outcomes from this project, which involved close collaboration between staff in CSIRO Land and Water, Primary Industries and Resources, South Australia and Landcare Groups. They have been compiled and presented in a manner that other scientists, decision makers and members of the general public can understand.
Likely Direction of Future Research Activities:
We are confident that the general direction of the work can be maintained. During the mid-term review we focussed the project to deliver more attainable goals. One outcome of this was general agreement to produce a book from our work. Following several iterations of "mail outs" to all project members a titles chapters and authors has been agreed to. This means that each project member knows which chapters they responsible for as first author, and which they are involved in as coauthors. The 31 Chapters are listed in Appendix 4.3, the end of this report. It is anticipated most, if not all, chapters will be in final draft stage at the final review and that an ACIAR sponsored scientific editor will assist in improving the quality of any chapters which require it. Summarising the work which has been undertaken in the first three years is seen as the major goal for the final year of this project.
After this current project is successfully completed there exists the possibility to extend the current work to use the regional data bases established to assess agricultural water use efficiency for 20% of the 300,000 km2 North China Plain to research the sustainability of the groundwater resources. This could be undertaken for a transect, bounded by latitudes 37.5 to 38.5 degrees North, running across the NCP. Groundwater resources the source of irrigated water used to supplement rainfall for successful winter wheat production. There is increasing concern that the groundwater resources are being used unstainabily. Also if fertilisation rates are known at the county level, pollution rates of the groundwater systems may also be monitored.
Staff from CLW Adelaide and SIAM have sampled several saline, sodic and acid sulfate soil profiles along a transect from the Nanpi/Wangsi research stations to the Bohai sea (Yangcheng reservoir/ Haixing research station) on the North China Plain. This information together with existing digitised spatial attribute information will being used to help assess and predict soil risk on the North China Plain.
Also after this current project is successfully completed there exists several research opportunities:
One: There is also a possibility to develop a new ACIAR research proposal to work on the effects of draining and managing saline soils in northwestern Hebei Province and Inner Mongolia. Initial discussions have been held between Dr Rob Fitzpatrick (CLW_Adl) and Prof Liu Chang Ming and Dr Liu Xiaojing (SIAM) about this possibility during Rob's visit to China in June 2000. Full details of Rob's visit are provided in Section 3.3 below.
Two: The West-China Development Strategy (WCDS) is currently being planned and implemented by the Chinese Central Government, and all lower levels of Government, within China. The second task of the WCDS is named "Ecological Construction", which involves large areas of erosion control and vegetation planting. According to the State Plan, by the year 2010, 60 million ha of eroded area and 2.2 million ha of desertification will be controlled. Forestry cover area will increase 3.9 million ha and 6.7 million ha of slope-land will be transformed. Grassland will be planted over 50 million ha.
Since early 2000 Prof Li Rui (ISWC) has been involved in organising the West-China Action Program of CAS. This is a largest research program of CAS, the total budget is 250 million Yuan over 3 years, of which 100 million Yuan is marked for research. One of five "Experiment and Demonstration Areas of Ecological Construction" is the Loess Plateau. Applied research will focus on land use planing, developing and demonstration of reasonable models of agriculture, vegetation restoration. This will be conducted at three different spatial extents: (i) an experiment area (100 km2); (ii) a demonstration area (650 km2); and an extension area (5000 km2).
From this large project in northwest China there are key questions to be researched.
1. Considering the changes to land-use mentioned what are the impacts of annual river flow ?
2. How will this impact sediment delivery to the river network ?
3. Can these be modelled spatially, not only for the experiment, demonstration or extension areas, but for the entire Loess Plateau ?
4. Can a monitoring system be established to assess if the targets of replanting, and the subsequent survival of plants, are being meet ?.
These four questions are of major interest to CLW staff involved with this current ACIAR project, especially the spatial information scientists.
3. Progress of Research Work
3.1 Objectives of the Project
The main objectives are:
Revisions:
We have monitored regional agricultural water use efficiency for 20% of the NCP primarily using a combination of the GIS data established by SIAM Spatial Information System scientists and remote sensing data established by CLW_Cbr Spatial Information System scientists. In the 2nd annual report in Section 3 Information Systems Sub-Task Designing and populating the GIS framework (Page 8-9) we discussed the up-scaling approach. Further investigation of the Pathfinder AVHRR Land (PAL) Global Area Coverage (GAC) data, produced from NASA's Earth Observation System (EOS) Pathfinder Program, has found that up-scaling from the AVHRR Local Area Coverage LAC [nominally 1 km2] data to AVHRR GAC data [nominally 8 km2] is impossible. GAC data is the result on on-board sampling of LAC data. A GAC pixel is the average from four LAC pixels then the next LAC pixel is skipped then the next four LAC pixels are averaged to generate the second GAC pixel. This is repeated until the end of the row. The next two lines of LAC data are completely skipped and the process is repeated. Hence not all LAC pixels are sampled. Rather than concentrating on up-scaling WUE we have focussed on developing a method to assess regional (60,000 km2) agricultural WUE on the NCP for the period 1984 until 1996.
3.2 Research Activities
Timetable and Personnel
In the period 1 July 1999 until 30 June 2000 one additional staff member, Andrew Bradford, has been assigned to the project team. Andrew Bradford, a GIS modeller, has been appointed to the ACIAR project for 50% of his time for the final two years of the project. Due to the increase management responsibilities of Tim McVicar, he and Dr Ian Willett, successfully negotiated the appointment of Andrew Bradford to assist with the spatial data analysis as noted in the 2nd annual report. The appointment of Andrew Bradford did not increase the overall amount requested from ACIAR.
There are no changes to project timetable.
(ii) Analysis and Research Methods
These are listed for each of the four sub-tasks in the following report.
1. Water Balance Modeling Sub-Task:
Strong links have been developed by scientists involved in water balance modelling in China and Australia. Following her visit to Canberra two years ago, Zhang Xingying published a journal paper on the use of different models for representing soil hydraulic properties. In this paper, she tested three commonly used models using data from the piedmont of Mt. Taihang. The results from this paper will help future water balance studies to better understand pant-water relationships for the North China Plain. See both SIAM_03 and SIAM_04 in the reference list.
The paper by Wang et al examined relationships between irrigation, ET, crop growth, and water use efficiency of a corn-wheat rotation in the NCP. It showed that different irrigation schemes are required for winter wheat and corn mainly due to rainfall distribution. This study found that soil evaporation is a significant proportion of total water use and can be reduced by mulching. The output from this work is listed in SIAM_01, SIAM_02, and CBR_01 in the reference list. Scientists on the North China Plain has also started to analyse groundwater levels (SIAM_05).
Dr Shao Mingan visited Canberra in January 2000 and worked with Lu Zhang on the test and application the WAVES model to the Loess Plateau. A journal paper has been submitted and it summarises the results of this study. It showed that the WAVES model was able to predict winter wheat growth and soil water balance. It also showed that the model can be used to provide information for agricultural water management in the Loess Plateau. Refer to CBR_02 in the reference list.
A visit to Canberra by Kang Shaozhong in April 2000 resulted in a journal paper. In this paper, we examined relationships between crop yield, irrigation, and water use efficiency. The results showed that evapotranpsiration, crop yield, and water use efficiency depend on the status of soil water content in different growing periods. Relationships have been developed which will allow prediction of crop yield and water use efficiency using the WAVES model. The study also recommended that a double-mile soil drying in the early vegetative growth period and severe soil drying the maturity stage of winter wheat is the optimum limited irrigation regime in this region. See CBR_03 in the reference list.
In CSIRO Land and Water Adelaide, working in the Mt Lofty Ranges, South Australia, there has been a great deal of output from scientists involved in water balance modelling. These following two paragraphs relate to references ADL_01 to ADL_03.
Rainfall was average to below average during the years of field trials in the Keynes catchment in the Mt Lofty Ranges, South Australia. Overland flow was generally only a small component of the water balance (less than 1% of annual rainfall but as high as 12 to 14% in two plots in the wettest year). Throughflow was generally higher than overland flow (less than 5% of annual rainfall but as high as 13% in the wettest year). Generally there was a trend for throughflow to increase downslope. Throughflow water had far higher concentrations of agricultural pollutants than overland flow and thus cannot be ignored as a major pathway for pollutants in streams in these environments. Deep drainage was as high as 20% of annual rainfall on the mid slopes under the unimproved pastures that farmers have sown. In contrast improved pastures were shown to minimise deep drainage and use deep stored soil water (from below 2 m) (ADL_02, ADL_03).
Recharge in the Keynes catchment caused groundwater levels to fluctuate by an average of about 1.5 m each year. Even in summer, the groundwater within the valley area was within a few meters of the soil surface. Thus, each winter the valley soils become saturated from groundwater as they have only a thin unsaturated zone in which to store infiltrating winter rainfall. Thus the spatial extent of saturation within the valley (and up the hillslopes) is related to the amount of excess rainfall less precipitation (and the small amount required for soil storage) and the capacity of the erosion gullies to discharge the water. Land degradation is not due to rising groundwaters as reported in other parts of Australia but rather the seasonal spatial extent of soil saturation (ADL_01).
The water balance scientists in Yangling, working on the Loess Plateau have studied many aspects of crop growth management, including the timing and components of fertiliser applied, the effect of mulch, and timing of irrigation amounts. Refer to paper ISWC_09 to ISWC_17 in the reference list. The approaches used range from data analysis of agronomic results to mechanistic modelling.
2. Soil Environment Impacts Sub-Task:
Much material has been published this year by the soils environmental impact group located in CSIRO Land and Water in Adelaide. The following headers are used to assist in understanding the partitioning of the 12 publications produced by this group this year. The reporting of soils research by the Chinese groups appears after the summary of the Adelaide groups research outcomes.
2.1 Estimate of hydrologic properties of soils in the Keyneton catchment (ADL_04 to ADL_07)
The duration of waterlogging on the upper slopes and crests in the Keynes catchment in the Mt Lofty Ranges, South Australia is almost as long as lower down on the slope. However, the causes, development and duration of waterlogging on the lower slopes is different to that on the mid and upper slopes which is in turn different to that on the crests. Soil saturation doesn't always occur on the boundary between the A and B horizons but can form within the B horizon or on the boundary between the B and C horizons. Saturation of the rootzone is also caused by lack of soil water storage capacity due to saturation of the soil profile from below by either saline groundwater or fresh, deep perched water. The management needs of texture-contrast soils with 'deep throttles' will be considerably different to those where ponding occurs on the top of the B horizon. These findings have serious ramifications for many agricultural regions with texture-contrast soils. The failure of current management options (drains) to adequately control waterlogging is partly due to the lack of understanding of its causes and the prediction of this variability. Methods used to predict waterlogging at landscape scale in the Mt Lofty Ranges must differentiate between the causes of waterlogging, otherwise they have no practical use in this region.
Ephemeral drainage from the Keynes catchment was predominantly throughflow and groundwater discharge in the years of the study (low to average rainfall years) (ADL_04). The data showed the importance of throughflow in the transport of agricultural contaminants to groundwater (ADL_08) and streams (ADL_06). The stream waters that drain acid sulfate-like soils were highly saline and sulfidic with high phosphorus loads. Particulate materials (clays and attached pollutants) flocculate and sink to the streambed, resulting in most contaminants being transported in solution in low rainfall years. The data suggest that, with the exception of phosphorus, drainage waters from acid sulfate-like soils will only be of environmental concern in high rainfall years when flow is non-saline and there is erosion of the streambed.
Indexes that have been developed to predict the mobility of contaminants through soils, based only on the soil chemical properties (ADL_05), do not adequately predict the movement of these chemicals if the soil has macropores (ADL_07). An index, based on both soil physical and chemical properties, has been developed and published to better predict the movement of contaminants through soils with macropores. The index shows the importance of 'residence time' in predicting the mobility of agricultural contaminants through soils.
A new project was commenced with the aim of delineating salinity and waterlogging patterns in the Keynes catchment as predicted by terrain analysis and relating these data to previous data derived from piezometer investigations. Initial results are to be presented at the 10th Australasian Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry Conference in August, 2000.
2.2 Ability to recognise and predict the developing occurrence of waterlogged, saline, acid sulfate and sodic soils within catchment landscapes
2.2.1 Diurnal and seasonal redox changes in waterlogged soils in upland discharge areas in the Herrmanns catchment (ADL_15)
The Herrmann's perched wetland is a saline discharge area in the Mt Lofty Ranges that is part of the 10% of strongly waterlogged landscape identified by a GIS analysis (see Table 1 in section 3.2 below). The wetland area, 50 m in diameter, was instrumented with a datalogger recording redox (Eh with platinum electrodes) at eight points, temperature probes at two, and rainfall. The sensors were placed along a 25 m transect extending from the marginal area re-vegetated with tall wheatgrass (Agropyron elongtum) to the centre of the wetland. The data records were captured at six hourly intervals since February 17, 1999.
There were pronounced diurnal changes in Eh in the top 5 cm in the wetland, and often at 20 cm, except during winter or when the system was perturbed by rainfall events. These diurnal changes 'turned off' in autumn when soil temperature dropped below about 10o C for a period of about 100 days (to day 240) until the minimum soil temperatures rose above 10o C. There is a pronounced decrease in Eh in the late afternoon, often more than 100 mV, due to oxygen removal by the C4 wetland plants or algal mats. Except for the electrode in the sodic soil under tall wheatgrass, all electrodes placed at 20 cm recorded reducing conditions, mostly below 200 mV and commonly between 0 and -200 mV. In the sodic soil, the soil at 20 cm became reducing (about -200 mV) from May until September 1999, the wettest and coldest period. All electrodes, except for the two placed at 5 cm in the wetland, record strongly reducing conditions (0 to ~200 mV) that are capable of reducing sulfate to sulfide, and in some instances (below -200 mV) to produce methane. The measurements confirm that the wetland and adjoining soils have conditions capable of reducing NO3-, Mn (IV), Fe (III), SO4=, and to produce methane, or arsine if suitable arsenic containing substrate is present.
The installed automated equipment to monitor soil redox status, moisture, temperature and rainfall at focus sites on the Dundas Tableland (Red Barren) and North China Plain (Nanpi Research station) are providing similar temporal data to support soil process models.
2.2.2 Changes in salinity and development of sodicity (ADL_14)
In the Herrmanns catchment sodic soils have been found to develop from saline soils (ECse >8dS/m) by fresh water leaching. These 'secondary sodic soils' develop from the drainage of saline soils when they are drained following the formation of nearby erosion gullies. These studies have demonstrated the important interrelationships between salinity and sodicity in the context of soil-water-landscape processes and the flocculation and dispersion of clay particles (ADL_14).
2.2.3 Identification and formation of potential acid sulfate soils (ADL_14)
In the Mt. Lofty Ranges and Dundas Tableland catchments the co-dominant anions in saline groundwaters and soils is sulfate and chloride. These saline soils are associated with geological formations that contain sulfur (i.e. pyrites or sulfate salts) and saline sulfate-rich groundwaters (EC 6-13 dS/m). Preferentially flowing through vertical cracks and old root channels, the sulfate-rich groundwaters seep under pressure to the soil surface where potential acid sulfate soils (pH>6) develop (ADL_10, ADL_14). These soils have distinctive black coloured blotches because of the presence of sulfidic materials. If the water is evaporated, several types of salt efflorescences and iron oxide gels remain on the soil surface. This can result in a large buildup of minerals including gypsum, halite, thenardite, mirabilite and iron oxides (ferrihydrite and schwertmannite) (ADL_11, ADL_12). These accumulated soluble salt minerals and iron oxyhydroxide minerals are useful indicators of the soil-water processes operating in these catchments and provide possible management strategies for reclaiming such salt-encrusted spots, where only salt-tolerant vegetation will grow (usually sedges and rushes).
2.2.4 Changes in potential acid sulfate soils and development of actual acid sulfate soils
If the waterlogged potential acid sulfate soils are disturbed or drained and exposed to the air, sulfuric acid forms and soil pH values can drop below 4 and sometimes below 2 (ADL_10; ADL_14). This process gives rise to different types of actual acid sulfate soils, depending on the soil texture, organic matter content and concentration of ions present. The soil pores in these soils often become clogged because of the formation of various iron oxide minerals (natrojarosite, sideronatrite, schwertmannite or goethite). The formation of these minerals is indicative of rapidly changing local environments and variations in pH and rates of Fe, S and Na mineralisation (ADL_11, ADL_12, ADL_13).
Because the soil becomes clogged and less permeable, the sulfate-rich ground water, which is under pressure, moves side ways or upslope with consequent redevelopment of the cycle of formation of potential acid sulfate soils. These soils are unstable and erode easily, leaving cemented soil layers, which are relatively resistant to erosion. The processes give rise to saline scalds, erosion gullies and poor water quality in streams and dams (ADL_14).
2.2.5 Changes in greenhouse gas emissions (ADL_09)
Saturated, saline soils are potential sources of greenhouse gases that have not been adequately researched. High proportions of these soils occur in saline discharge areas and are potential acid sulfate soils. Depending on seasonal conditions, redox status and the nature of groundwaters (sulfidic, sulfatic or oxygenated), greenhouse gases such as CO2, N2O and CH4 may be emitted. Drainage of these sites may decrease production of these greenhouse gases. The acidification process accelerates the decomposition and formation of minerals in the soils and underlying rocks and causes an increase in salinity and carbonate formation (ADL_09).
2.3 Specification of the main processes that lead to degraded landscapes in the Mt Lofty Ranges, Dundas Tableland and North China Plain (ADL_10 to ADL_14)
We have developed new approaches for constructing mechanistic models of soil and water processes that explain and predict the processes giving rise to a range of complex and poorly understood acid sulfate, saline and sodic soils in catchments. We have applied quantitative field and laboratory measurements using hydropedological concepts along toposequences, geochemical and mineralogical analyses and simulation modelling in instrumented catchments. We report, for the first time, the identification of new soil types (inland acid sulfate soils) and iron minerals (e.g. sideronatrite and schwertmannite) that have formed by biomineralization processes. These processes are important because they can to be used to develop biogeochemical dispersion models to describe spatial and temporal changes that lead to degraded landscapes in the regions (ADL_10; ADL_14).
The Adelaide research group has shown that the toposequence is suitable for constructing mechanistic models of spatial and temporal biogeochemical changes in soils, because each of the vertical and lateral changes can be linked to hydrological (seasonal waterlogging), physico-chemical or biomineralogical processes. The toposequence approach provides an effective basis for understanding regolith and hydrological processes because each profile is influenced by, and influences, adjacent profiles, especially those downslope or in the direction of the surface hydraulic gradient. The structural approach provided us with an organisational framework to construct detailed mechanistic biogeochemical models for catchments in the Mt. Lofty Ranges and Dundas Tableland. We have applied the structural approach to describe in detail the vertical and lateral soil morphological and biogeochemical changes that takes place within toposequences. This approach describes the spatial and temporal changes (i.e. direction of expansion) that occurs when soils degrade (e.g. saline, acid sulfate and sodic soils). This is done by identifying and interpreting the major soil and hydrological processes from research involving field monitoring (e.g. salinity, redox potential and piezometers) and laboratory analyses of soils (e.g. chemical and mineralogical). The Adelaide group is currently using this information, together with more detailed biogeochemical data, to refine and develop more comprehensive geochemical dispersion models for each catchment.
In October, 1999 Rob Fitzpatrick and Phil Davies travelled with SIAM staff (Renzhao Mao, Xiaojing Liu and Li Weiqiang) to the North China Plain, where they sampled 6 saline, sodic and acid sulfate soil profiles (68 samples) along a transect from Nanpi/Wangsi research stations to the Bohai sea (Yangcheng reservoir/ Haixing research station). The samples are being used to help assess and predict soil risk on the North China Plain.
In China both groups have produced very important soils environmental research. In SIAM Dr Hu Chunsheng has been involved in research which is using soils data to provide indicators of carry capacity for the North China Plain, see SIAM_06 and SIAM_07. In addition to being involved with research initiated by staff from Adelaide, Renzhao Mao has been instigated research with staff from Adelaide looking at determining the magnetic susceptibility of saline soils (SIAM_09).
For the Loess Plateau there have been several papers addressing the need for soil conservation methods to be incorporated into sustainable agricultural practices. In ISWC_08 Dr Guobin presented a discussion paper on this topic which summarised his many years of direct research and experience in this important research topic. To put this ideas into practice data availability is a key issue which often constrains applying methods to large areas. Options for overcoming this problem have been researched by spatial soils staff in Yangling (ISWC_07).
3. Information Systems Sub-Task:
In CLW Canberra fundamental spatial research using a calculate-then-interpolate (CI) approach [in preference to interpolate-then-calculate (IC)] for regional hydrological modeling of moisture availability has been assessed. This research used AVHRR data in a novel way; as covariates for spatial interpolation. This technique inherently uses the high spatial density of remotely sensed data. This manuscript describing this strategic research has been invited into a Special Issue of Remote Sensing of Environment, refer to CBR_04. A companion Technical Report fully documents all technical details, including the basis for selection of spline interpolation models (CBR_05). For a daily time step regional water balance model this new CI method is vast improvement on the currently used IC approach, which relies heavily on the accuracy of interpolation of input driving variables.
Spatial Information Systems scientists in SIAM have been busy establishing data sets for the regional assessment of water use efficiency for the North China Plain from 1984 until 1996. This has taken large amounts of time and resources to acquire data for a large region in China. Developing these regional data bases has placed pressures on these scientists, which point based scientists do not have to deal with. These scientists have performed a mighty task in establishing a regional data base for China, these efforts should not be overlooked. This work has started during this reporting period during a visit from Chinese staff to Australia (see Section 3.3 Travel and Meetings below) and the monitoring of water use efficiency for the North China Plain will be reported in next years annual report.
The ISWC Information Systems Group have made continued their considerable progress developing methods and the required data bases to rapidly survey land use, soil erosion at regional scales, see references ISWC_04 to ISWC_06. The methods and data bases established by this group over many years will be the basis of their research involvement, using the Loess Plateau as case study, for the West-China Action Program of CAS which underpins the West-China Development Strategy. This project was introduced in the Executive Summary, specifically the Future Research Activities section above.
In CLW Adelaide there have been large advances in the applied assessment of natural resources at regional scales. A methodology to construct soil-landscape models for regional assessment of susceptibility to drainage/waterlogging, salinity and acidity/alkalinity in an 80 km2 area in the Mt. Lofty Ranges has been developed (ADL_18; ADL_19). This method reduces cost and removes biases often introduced local experience, knowledge and personal judgement of the surveyor(s).
The methodology uses the field recognition of soil process patterns at point scale followed by controlled extrapolation of these patterns to catchment and sub-regional (80 km2) scales. Point scale data resulting from detailed investigations into pedology, hydrology, topography, geology and vegetation along a number of toposequence transects (approximately 400 m) within a 0.2 km2 catchment were compiled to provide information on representative landscape drainage/waterlogging, salinity and acidity/alkalinity patterns. This information was extrapolated to the catchment as a whole (2 km2) using information from a 1:5,000 scale soil survey. This involved the linking of soil and hydrological processes to the mapped soil units and the allocation of potential drainage/waterlogging, salinity and acidity/alkalinity classes to each unit. The next step was to extrapolate this data to the sub-region by integrating 1:50,000 scale soils information (obtained from PIRSA), Landsat TM, AIRSAR (ADL_16) and terrain analysis methods (e.g. ADL_20). These data were analysed within a raster GIS framework, using a linear weighted index modelling technique, reflecting the relative contributions of each data set. Representative areas of each mapped class of soil drainage/waterlogging, salinity and acidity/alkalinity in the catchment were then used as a training set to optimise the classification. The resulting data set was checked and verified by field survey techniques.
A number of nested map products including "best estimate" maps of drainage/waterlogging, salinity and acidity/alkalinity for 2 km2 (catchment) (sub-regional) areas (ADL_18) have been produced. Initial assessment of the results obtained show good qualitative agreement based on ground truthing from limited random site checks across the region (ADL_21). A set of data models, which defined the spatial analysis processes used in the project have been developed. Project staff acquired and installed the ANZLIC metadata entry tool software and compiled the required metadata set information in the final report (ADL_18).
The resulting data sets (ADL_18) give an assessment of degrees of potential soil drainage/waterlogging and salinity in the landscape for the 80 km2 sub-region. Approximately 11% of the area is classified as having the potential to be strongly waterlogged, with a further 27% potentially periodically waterlogged. Particularly noticeable are the indications of waterlogging moving up-slope in small gullies perpendicular to the principal drainage system. In certain locations these gullies link to patches of wet soils correlated with areas of groundwater discharge. The overall coincidence of areas mapped as potentially waterlogged in the landscape shows good qualitative agreement with ground truth data acquired from limited, random sites across the study area.
These maps were then used in conjunction with other landscape attributes (e.g. riparian vegetation, landcover and slope, etc) to produce a composite regional scale assessment of catchment condition (a rating from good to poor). A significant outcome of this work was the formalisation of metadata for current Mt Torrens data sets using the ANZLIC metadata entry tool software, which involved close collaboration between staff in CSIRO Land & Water, University of South Australia and Primary Industries & Resources, South Australia.. Results of this work were presented at several National and International conferences and field trips and have been published (ADL_18).
Extension of the catchment condition for work has taken place in the upper Torrens region where 230 catchments have now been rated by the same techniques previously applied to the 55 catchments in the Mount Torrens (80km2) region (ADL_17).
The office assessment using GIS (ADL_18; ADL_17) should first be used to broadly identify the regional extent of land degradation as a precursor before applying the practical on farm Soil-landscape and vegetation field key developed by Fitzpatrick, Cox, and Bourne in 1997 (Catchment Management Series; CSIRO Publishing). The field key will help landholders to map problem sites (hot spots) on aerial photographs and assign practical solutions. Results of this work were presented at the 17th Biennial conference of the Australian Clay Minerals Society Inc. 9-14th April, 2000 (ADL_19).
As part of the investigations into soil moisture estimation using radar remote sensing, improved algorithms were presented at the Pacific Rim AIRSAR Significant Results and Planning Workshop from 24-26 August, 1999 (ADL_16). The waterlogging assessment work was submitted in March, 2000 for inclusion in the 10th Australasian Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry Conference. We have tested the utility of developed spatial models for waterlogging and pH properties using field site data for the above attributes (ADL_18, ADL_21). This work is to continue, potentially linking with a NLWRA proposal to translate the spatial methodologies to Victoria and Queensland during 2000 and 2001.
4. Technology Transfer Sub-Task:
The two groups in China have been both very active in the technology transfer area. Through the experimental stations they have been able to discuss research outcomes with local farmers. In SIAM they have also focussed on pathways which technology transfer can follow (SIAM_10). There have been two papers published on the use of indicators for technology transfer to local farmers in the saline soils areas of the eastern NCP (SIAM_09 and SIAM_11). In ISWC in Yangling it is acknowledged that environmental conservation measures must be implemented within economic and social conditions, refer to ISWC_01 to ISWC_03. The scientists are now influencing the land use planning and regional development decision making processes.
In Canberra Dr Joe Walker has also been influencing the decision making processes at a National Level. In addition to performing this task the influence of landscape age and evolution has been discussed in the context of landscape health. This introduces the idea that landscape health needs to be assessed differently for different parts of the landscape, given the stage of landscape evolution (CBR_06).
Staff in Adelaide led several publicly advertised field trips. On 10th April, 2000 about 45 delegates attended the mid-conference full day field trip of the 17th Biennial Australian clay minerals conference (ADL_11, ADL_12). On 11th April 2000, about 30 farmers, state agriculture extension staff and final year students from the Department of Natural Resource Sciences at Adelaide University attended a field day in the Keynes Catchment in the Mt Lofty Ranges. The benefits from sowing perennial pasture species in the region were discussed, in terms of increased water usage and farm productivity (ADL_22). On 3rd August 1999 staff assisted in running a field trip and workshop on dryland salinity on Eyre Peninsula for the State Dryland Salinity committee. About 40 farmers and state agriculture extension staff attended and during the workshop radio interviews were given. Following the workshop a newspaper article was published for Landcare groups (ADL_24).
Staff presented papers at several publicly advertised symposia, seminars and national conferences. A paper was presented on 11th November 1999 entitled Pedogenic processes: their impact on soil and water quality at the Australian Academy of Science symposium entitled "Fixing the foundations - the role of soil science in solving Australia's crisis in land and water management." ((ADL_24). A seminar was presented on 9th March, 2000 entitled "Why soils knowledge is important in telecommunications, water quality, mining, and greenhouse gas emissions" at the Royal Society of South Australia Inc (ADL_25). A seminar was presented in Adelaide on 1st March 2000 entitled "Where do Acid Sulfate Soils exist and why they cost us millions of dollars?" (ADL_27; ADL_26).
(iii) Implications/Results
This is the third year of the project and the publication of results in the scientific literature has been maintained a high level. The production of the booklet "A Guide to Environmental Indicators" (In Chinese) was a major output during this reporting period. This booklet establishes the platform for the use of environmental indicators in China. This was required for the use of indicators as a technology transfer tool in China.
During the mid-term review, held in October 1999 in Beijing, we assessed the sampling period, spatial extent of regional scale yield and meteorological required to complete the WUE monitoring on the NCP. In early June 2000 two Chinese visitors arrived in Canberra and a method for regionally assessing WUE was developed.
(iv) Problems
Communication difficulties between the Chinese and Australian laboratories have been solved. The time taken to respond to e-mails by all project participants has reduced. This has meant that the project is running is more efficient and coordinated manner.
(v) Report and Publications
These are included in Section 3.2 Research Activities sub-section (ii) Analysis and Research Methods. These have been collated and are provided as attachments.
Benefits of Research
The benefits to date have been in establishing similar approaches to WUE modelling (at both the plot and regional scales) and a common approach to the development of environmental indicators. Monitoring regional Ag WUE allowed the impact of water saving agricultural practices on the North China Plain (NCP) using readily available regional data to be assessed. The methods developed can be used for other agricultural regions. Improving the situation on the NCP, by maintaining agricultural production, while increasing Ag WUE, while minimising environmental degradation and pollution, will require inter-disciplinary systems analysis. The methods can be used to monitor regional Ag WUE from 1997 onwards and can also be extended to the entire NCP. The data ingestion component of the spatial information system needs to be streamlined to allow information to be generated in a timely fashion for the entire NCP. This is primarily a matter for operational organisations managing agricultural, water and land resources for the NCP to address.
A great number of benefits in upscaling soil process information to regional scale landscape assessment has been developed through toposequences in the Adelaide Hills. These methods are currently being modified to be transferred to scientists on the North China Plain, where relative topography is low.
Regional data sets developed for the Loess Plateau have enabled methods for upscaling of erosion rates (and methods to reduce the impact of soil erosion, through modification of agricultural practices better suited to the landscape) has been implemented by the research group in Yangling. The Loess Plateau is an area of extreme topographic change and developing regional GIS data bases, including an accurate DEM, has taken much time and effort. These developments have placed this research group in leading position within China to analyse soil erosion at a regional scale.
3.3 Travel and Meetings
In this reporting period Dr Liu Guobin (ISWC) and Dr Hu Chungsheng (SIAM) finished their visit to Adelaide. During this visit they were involved with soil sampling for validation of GIS soil predictions (ADL_21).
In October 1999 four CSIRO scientists (Joe Walker, Rob Fitzpatrick, Phil Davies and Tim McVicar) travelled to China. All were involved in the mid-term project meeting which was held in Beijing. It should be noted that considerable effort was made by the Chinese project partners to travel to Beijing for this import meeting. Following this meeting Rob Fitzpatrick and Phil Davies travelled with SIAM staff (Renzhao Mao, Xiaojing Liu and Li Weiqiang) to the North China Plain, where they sampled 6 saline, sodic and acid sulfate soil profiles (68 samples) along a transect from Nanpi/Wangsi research stations to the Bohai sea (Yangcheng reservoir/ Haixing research station). The samples are being used to help assess and predict soil risk on the North China Plain. Phil Davies spent two weeks with SIAM staff (Zhang Guanglu, Mao Renzhao, Liu Xiaojing and Hu Chunsheng) determining the spatial distribution of saline, sodic and acid sulfate soils on the North China Plain.
Dr Shao Mingan visited Canberra January 2000 and worked with Dr Lu Zhang on the test and application the WAVES model to the Loess Plateau. A journal paper has been submitted and it summarises the results of this study. It showed that the WAVES model was able to predict winter wheat growth and soil water balance. It also showed that WAVES can be used to provide information for agricultural water management in the Loess Plateau.
Dr Kang Shao visited Dr Lu Zhang in April 2000 where they modelled, using WAVES, relationships between crop yield, irrigation, and water use efficiency. The results showed that evapotranpsiration, crop yield, and water use efficiency depend on the status of soil water content in different growing periods. Relationships have been developed which allow prediction of crop yield and water use efficiency.
Dr Rob Fitzpatrick presented an invited paper entitled "Assessing the Occurrence and Management Options for Saline and Sodic Soils in Semi-arid Mediterranean Agro-ecological Systems" at the International Symposium on Rehabilitation of Grassland and Control of Desertification in Dry Areas" in Guyuan City, Hebei Province, China (28th June - 4th July, 2000). Rob Fitzpatrick had discussions with Liu Xiaojing and Ms Lia from SIAM on the progress of work to determine the spatial distribution of saline, sodic and acid sulfate soils on the North China Plain. Rob also held formal discussions with Prof Liu Chang Ming, Liu Xiaojing and other SIAM staff about the possibility of formulating a new ACIAR proposal to work on the effects of draining and managing saline soils in northwestern Hebei Province and Inner Mongolia.
Zhang Guanglu and Wang Huixiao arrived in Australia in early June. In Canberra they worked with Tim McVicar, Andrew Bradford, Warrick Dawes and Lu Zhang to develop a spatial information system to monitor regional WUE for NCP. This was performed for 20% of the NCP (the area that data was available) for the period 1984 until 1996. In August Zhang Guanglu and Wang Huixiao also visited Adelaide for two weeks. Zhang attended the 10th Australasian Remote Sensing conference worked with Phil Davies for the following week. Wang work with Dr Jim Cox and Dr Doug Reuter for a week each.
3.4 Budget Discussion
Removed from General WWW view.
3.5 Conclusions
It is our view that the project is on track and has produced an impressive set of scientific outcomes. Most, if not all, of the problems associated with communication have been overcome by the development and maintenance of the WWW site. Some lack of response to e-mail from some sites continues to make project coordination difficult. The plans for the future involve working toward timely delivery of the major outcomes.
4. Appendices
4.1 Research Result of Note
These have been discussed in the Executive Summary.
4.2 Research Reports, Papers and Publications
There have been 61 publications produced this year. Many are discussed in the body of the annual report under Section 3.2 Research Activities sub-section (ii) Analysis and Research Methods.
1. Water Balance Modeling Sub-Task:
1. (ADL_01): Cox, J.W., Davies, P.J. and Spouncer, L.R. (1999). Water and soil degradation in the Keynes Catchment, South Australia 1. Seasonal changes in water levels in the regolith overlying fractured rock. CSIRO Land and Water Report 39/99. October 1999 pp17.
2. (ADL_02): Cox, J.W., Davies, P.J. and Spouncer, L.R. (1999). Water and soil degradation in the Keynes Catchment, South Australia 5. Changes in soil water status of texture-contrast soils along two toposequences. CSIRO Land and Water Report 43/99. October 1999. pp10.
3. (ADL_03): Cox, J.W., Davies, P. and Spouncer, L.R. (1999). Water and soil degradation in the Keynes Catchment, South Australia 6. Variability in the duration of perched watertables. CSIRO Land and Water Report 44/99. October 1999. pp15.
4. (SIAM_01): Wang Hui-xiao, Liu Chang-ming, 1999, Supply and demand of water resources and analysis of crop water use efficiency in the North China Plain, Eco-agricultural Research, 7(3): 11-15 (in Chinese).
5. (SIAM_02): Wang Hui-xiao, Liu Chang-ming, 2000, Advances in crop water use efficiency research, Advances in Water Science, 11(1):99-104 (in Chinese)
6. (SIAM_03): Zhang Xiying, Pei Dong, You Maozheng, 1999, Ways for increasing water use efficiency in farmland of Taihang Piedmont, Eco-agricultural Research, 7(3): 22-26 (in Chinese).
7. (SIAM_04): Zhang Xiying, Zhang Lu, Liu Changming, 2000, On describing the hydraulic properties of unsaturated soil in Piedmont of Mt.Taihang, ACTA Agricultural Boreali-Sinica, (in press)
8. (SIAM_05): Zhang Yongqian, Liu Changming, Shen Yaniun,2000, Analysis of the groundwater level change in the shallow stratum in plain in front of the Taihang Mountain, Eco-agricultural Research, (in press, in Chinese).
9. (CBR_01): Wang, H.X., Zhang, L., Dawes, W.R., Liu, C.M., Improving water use efficiency of irrigated crops in the North China Plain measurements and modelling, Agricultural Water Management (in press), 2000.
10. (CBR_02): Shao, M.A., Huang, M.B., Zhang, L., Li, Y.S., Simulation of field-scale water balance in the Loess Plateau of China using WAVES, Agricultural Water Management (submitted), 2000.
11. (CBR_03): Kang, S.Z., Zhang, L., Liang, Y.L., Cai, H.J., Effects of limited irrigation on yield and water-use efficiency of winter wheat in Loess Plateau of China, Field Crops Research (submitted), 2000.
12. (ISWC_09): Liang Y .L. and S.Z. Kang, Effect of no-full irrigation on physiological characters of wheat on Loess Plateau. 1999. 11, Publisher-CRC Press. USA.
13. (ISWC_10): Liang Y. L. and S.Z. Kang, Effect of irrigation-limited on seedling vigour of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum. L) On Loess Plateau in China. 1999. 11. Publisher-CRC Press. USA.
14. (ISWC_11): Liang Y.L., R.A. Richards. Seedling vigour characteristics Among Chinese and Australian Wheat, Communications in Soil science and plant analysis, 1999. Vol 30(1+2). 159-165.
15. (ISWC_12): Liang Y.L. and B.C. Xu. Simulated Carbon and Nitrogen content in Arid Farmland Ecosystem in China Using Denitrification Decomposition Model. Commun. Soil Sci and plant analysis, 2000 (15+16).
16. (ISWC_13): Liang Y.L., S.Z. Kang, and L. Shan. The Effects of soil moisture and nitrogen and phosphorus supplied on carbon isotope discrimination and water use efficiency in wheat. Acta phytoecologica sinica, 2000.2.
17. (ISWC_14): Liang Y.L. C.E. Zhang and D.W. Guo. The Benefit and prospect Analysis of Cropland Mulch On Loess Plateau. Eco-agronomy Research. 2001 No1.
18. (ISWC_15): Mao M.C. D.W. Guo and Y.L. Liang. Effects of Soil Moisture on Photosynthetic Rate, Transpiration Rate and Water Use Efficient in Different Leaf Position of Rape. Eco-agronomy Research. 2001 No1.
19. (ISWC_16): Huang Mingbin, Shao Ming'an and Li Yushan. A modified stochastic-dynamic water balance model and its application I. Model. Journal of Water Resources. 2000, no6:20-26
20. (ISWC_17): Huang Mingbin, Shao Ming'an and Li Yushan. A modified stochastic-dynamic water balance model and its application II. Application. Journal of Water Resources. 2000, no 6: 27- 33
2. Soil Environment Impacts Sub-Task:4
21. (ADL_04): Cox, J.W. and Ashley, R. (2000). Water quality of gully drainage from texture-contrast soils in the Adelaide Hills in low rainfall years. Australian Journal of Soil Research 38 (5) (in press).
22. (ADL_05): Cox, J.W., Davies, P.J. and Spouncer, L.R. (1999). Water and soil degradation in the Keynes Catchment, South Australia 2. Electrical conductivity, pH and chloride concentrations of the regolith. CSIRO Land and Water Report 40/99. October 1999 pp19.
23. (ADL_06): Cox, J.W., Davies, P.J. and Spouncer, L.R. (1999). Water and soil degradation in the Keynes Catchment, South Australia 3. Water quality in a gully draining acid-sulfate soils. CSIRO Land and Water Report 41/99. October 1999 pp26.
24. (ADL_07): Cox, J.W., Davies, P.J. and Spouncer, L.R. (1999). Water and soil degradation in the Keynes Catchment, South Australia 4. Variability in pore water chemistry of texture-contrast soils. CSIRO Land and Water Report 42/99. October 1999. pp34.
25. (ADL_08): Cox, J.W., Spouncer, L.R. and Davies, P.J. (1999). Water and soil degradation in the Keynes Catchment, South Australia 7. Seasonal changes in groundwater quality. CSIRO Land and Water Report 45/99. October 1999. pp20.
26. (ADL_09): Fitzpatrick R.W. and Merry R.H. (1999). Pedogenic Carbonate Pools and Climate Change in Australia p.105-119. In: R. Lal, J.M. Kimble, H. Eswaran and B.A. Stewart (eds.). "Global Climate Change and Pedogenic Carbonates". CRC Press Lewis Publishers. Boco Raton. FL Proceedings of the International Workshop on Global Climate Change and Pedogenic Carbonates. Tunis, Tunisia. 13-17 October, 1997.
27. (ADL_10): Fitzpatrick, R.W. (1999). Development of acid sulfate soils and other toxic environments in saline and waterlogged areas. Book of abstracts for the 1999 National Conference on: "Productive use and rehabilitation of saline lands (PURSL)". Naracoorte, South Australia, November 1-5, 1999. p.58.
28. (ADL_11): Fitzpatrick R.W., Raven M., Self P.G. and McClure S.M. (2000). The first occurrence of sideronatrite in soils: a hazard or promise for environs in the Mt. Lofty Ranges? Paper presented at the 17th Biennial conference of the Australian Clay Minerals Society Inc. 9-14th April, 2000 Adelaide. Book of Abstracts, p 80-81.
29. (ADL_12): Fitzpatrick R.W., Self P.G. and Fritsch E. (2000). Iron oxide transformation in a strongly weathered Tertiary soil with pallid zone and ferricrete: 17th Biennial conference of the Australian Clay Minerals Society Inc. 9-14th April, 2000 Adelaide. Mid Conference field guide, p 28-29.
30. (ADL_13): Fitzpatrick R.W. (2000). Soil-water-landscape processes: Layer silicates. 17th Biennial conference of the Australian Clay Minerals Society Inc. 9-14th April, 2000 Adelaide. Mid Conference field guide, p 30-32.
31. (ADL_14): Fitzpatrick R.W., Merry R.H. and Cox J.W. (2000). What are saline soils? What happens when they are drained? Journal of the Australian Association of Natural Resource Management (AANRM). Special Issue (June 2000), 26-30.
32. (ADL_15): Merry R.H. Fitzpatrick R.W. and Davies P.J. (2000). Redox measurements at Herrmann's wetland. 17th Biennial conference of the Australian Clay Minerals Society Inc. 9-14th April, 2000 Adelaide. Mid Conference field guide, p 33-35a.
33. (SIAM_06): Hu Chunsheng, 1999, Physical and chemical indicators of soil health diagnostics and its application, Eco-agricultural Research, 7(3):16-18 (in Chinese).
34. (SIAM_07): Chen Yisong, Hu Chunsheng, 2000, Study of the agricultural environmental bearing capacity in the mid-south of Hebei Province, Eco-agricultural Research, 8(2), (in Chinese).
35. (SIAM_08): Mao Renzhao, Fitzpatrick R.W.,1999, Preliminary study on magnetic susceptibility of saline soil, Eco-agricultural Research, 7(3):19-21 (in Chinese).
36. (ISWC_07): Yang Qinke, Li Rui and Zhang Xiaoping. Study and Practice on Rapid Survey of Regional Soil Erosion, Research of Soil and Water Conservation. 2000, Vol7,No1:53-57.
37. (ISWC_08): Guobin Liu. Soil conservation and sustainable agriculture on the Loess Plateau: challenges and prospective, AMBIO,Vol28(8),1999.
3. Information Systems Sub-Task:
38. (ADL_16): Bruce D.A., Davies P.J. and Fitzpatrick R.W. (1999). Validating soil moisture estimates polarimetric radar using GIS models: further results from the 1993 AIRSAR missions to Australia. Proceedings of the Pacific Rim AIRSAR Significant Results and Planning Workshop; 24-26 August, 1999. pp. 14. http://airsar.jpl.nasa.gov/news/bruce1.pdf
39. (ADL_17): Bruce D.A., Fitzpatrick R.W., Davies P.J., Merry R.H., Spouncer L.R., Langdon A. and Phillips J. (1999). Catchment indicators for the upper Torrens. Spatial Measurement and Information Group (SMIG) - University of South Australia Consulting Report. pp.22.
40. (ADL_18): Fitzpatrick R.W., Bruce D.A., Davies P.J., Spouncer L.R., Merry R.H., Fritsch E. and Maschmedt D. (1999). Soil Landscape Quality Assessment at Catchment and Regional Scale. Mount Lofty Ranges Pilot Project: National Land & Water Resources Audit. CSIRO Land & Water Technical Report. 28/99. pp.69.
http://www.clw.csiro.au/publications/technical99/tr28-99.pdf
41. (ADL_19): Fitzpatrick R.W., Bruce D.A., Davies P.J., Spouncer L.R., Merry R.H., Fritsch E. and Maschmedt D. (2000). Assessment of soil-landscape conditions within catchments and regions in the Mount Lofty Ranges, using soil-landscape models. 17th Biennial conference of the Australian Clay Minerals Society Inc. 9-14th April, 2000 Adelaide. Mid Conference field guide, p 36.
42. (ADL_20): Salama R.B., Fitzpatrick R.W., Pollock D., Bruce D.A., Davies P.J. and Spouncer L.R. (1999). Mapping soil landscapes using digital elevation data. Extended Abstracts: 3rd Conference of the Working Group on Pedometrics of the International Union of Soil Science. p.27-39.
http://www.usyd.edu.au/su/agric/ACSS/news/Confab_extend_abstracts.pdf
43. (ADL_21): Spouncer L., Davies P., Liu G. and Hu C. (1999). Ground truthing a GIS of the best estimate of profile pH, Mt Torrens, South Australia 1. Preliminary soil sampling and analysis. CSIRO Land and Water Report 48/99. November 1999. pp11.
44. (ISWC_04): Yang Qinke, Li Rui, Zhang Xiaoping and Tim R. McVicar. Evaluation of Cropland Using GIS and Land Survey Data. Acta Agricultrrae Boreali-occidentalis Sinica, 1999, 8(6):194-200.
45. (ISWC_05): Yang Qinke, Li Rui, On Characteristics and Management of Land Data. Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation. Vol 19, No 7. 20-25.
46. (ISWC_06): Yang Qinke, Jiao Feng and Lei Huizhu. On the"Nice Land and Green Mountains" in the Loess Plateau Research of Soil and Water Conservation. 2000, Vol 7, No 2:53-54.
47. (CBR_04): McVicar, T.R. and Jupp, D.L.B. (2000) Using covariates to spatially interpolate moisture availability in the Murray-Darling Basin: a novel use of remotely sensed data. Remote Sensing of Environment. (Accepted)
48. (CBR_05): McVicar, T.R., and Jupp, D.L.B. (1999). Using AVHRR data and meteorological surfaces as covariates to spatially interpolate moisture availability in the Murray-Darling Basin, CSIRO Land and Water Technical Report 50/99, Canberra, Australia, pp. 45.
4. Technology Transfer Sub-Task:
49. (ADL_22): Cox, J.W. and Pitman, A. (2000). Land Degradation Research at Keyneton: 1. Water usage and dry matter production of perennial pastures on sloping duplex soils. Field guide for Land Care Officers and Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences Students 11th April 2000.
50. (ADL_23): Fitzpatrick R.W. and Chittleborough D.J. (1999). Pedogenic processes: their impact on soil and water quality. Proceedings of the Australian Academy of Science symposium: "Fixing the foundations - the role of soil science in solving Australia's crisis in land and water management." Adelaide: 11-12 November 1999. pp.21-22; http://www.science.org.au/soils.pdf
http://www.science.org.au/soils.pdf
51. (ADL_24): Fitzpatrick R.W. (1999). Rising saline watertables and acid sulfate soil on Eyre Peninsula - Are you on "acid" or, is it just a case of rotten eggs??? In: The Long Run. Eyre Peninsula's Own Land Management Publication. Issue 14. Spring 1999. p.1-2.
52. (ADL_25): Fitzpatrick R.W. (2000). Why soils knowledge is important in tele-communications, water quality, mining, and greenhouse gas emissions. In: Royal Society of South Australia Inc. The 1999 Verco Medallist Presentation. Thursday 9th March, 2000. Newsletter of the Royal Society Inc. 2000, Vol. 1, 1-2.
53. (ADL_26): Fitzpatrick R.W. (1999). Soils that are costing millions of dollars. They're very thick. They're very deep and very smelly. These are the acid sulfate soils that cover about 40,000 hectares around the Australian coast. Dr Rob Fitzpatrick of CSIRO Land and Water says already about 10 percent of the area has been disturbed and is costing the community millions of dollars. Ed. Nick Goldie. Topical Australian science for mainstream radio replay. CD-ROM Produced by CSIRO and Pegasus Media. Ski Files 99-12. No. 15. (2'11'').
54. (ADL_27): Fitzpatrick R.W. (2000). Presented the "CLW-Adelaide Seminar" on March 1st 2000 entitled " Where do Acid Sulfate Soils exist and why they cost us millions of dollars? (Abstract).
55. (SIAM_09): Mao Renzhao, Liu Xiaojing, 2000, Study on the indicators of agro-environmental quality in saline region, lower Haihe Plain, Eco-agricultural Research, 8(3), (in Chinese).
56. (SIAM_10): Li Huiyin, Ge Yanhui, 1999, Study on framework of transfer system of agricultural technology of China in the situation of market economy, System Sciences and Comprehensive Studies in Agriculture, (15)14:306-309 (in Chinese ).
57. (SIAM_11): Liu Xiaojing, Tian Kuixiang, 2000, Preliminary discussion on the distribution of agricultural resources and sustainable development model of agriculture in low plain with saline soil of Pan Bohai sea, Eco-agricultural Research, (in press, in Chinese).
58. (ISWC_01): Li Rui and Lu Huiming. The Progress of Agricultural Integrate Development Research in Soil and Water Loss Region in Loess Plateau. Research of Soil and Water Conservation. 2000, Vol 7, No 1:1-4.
59. (ISWC_02): Li Rui, Ding Yongjian and Yu Xiaosheng. Pay Attention to ecological development and develop China's west in a rational way. Impact of Science on Society. 2000(2): 45 -- 47.
60. (ISWC_03): Li Rui, Liu Guobin and Mu Xinmin. On the Centre Issues of Eco-environment Rehabilitation of Loess Plateau: Improve Eco-environment and Make Farmer Rich. Bulletin of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. 2000, 15(3): 193-196.
61. (CBR_06): Walker, J., Thompson, C.H. and D.J.Rapport (2000) Landscape futures : the importance of landscape age and health. In :Brunkhurst, D. and Mouat, D. (eds) Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Landscape futures, Sept 1999 University of New England, Australia. Published by Inst Bioregional Resource Management, University of New England as a CD ROM.
4.3 Listing of the 31 Chapter for the Final ACIAR Book
The numbers in the brackets cross reference to the"16 Objectives" as per 1.15 Outputs Table of the original project proposal.
Preamble, Project Genesis and Collaboration Background
David Jupp (Canberra)
Overview Highlights of the project in China and Australia.
Liu Changming (Beijing), Joe Walker (Cbr) Li Rui (ISWC) and Rob Fitzpatrick (Adl)
1. Overview of processes and the models developed and validated.
Lu Zhang (Cbr) Kang Shaozhong (ISWC), Shao Ming'an (ISWC) Huixiao Wang (Beijing), Zhang Xiying (SIAM) (1, 2)
2. Comparison of the water balance models used.
Shao Ming'an (ISWC) and Mingbin Huang (ISWC) (1, 2)
3. Linking the water balance to irrigation scheduling.
Zhang Xiying (SIAM) (2)
4. Leaf, canopy and regional definitions of water use efficiency.
Huixiao Wang (Beijing) and Doug Reuter (Adl) (3)
5. Linking water balance to pasture production.
Jim Cox (Adl) (4, 6)
6. Predicting crop yield and water use efficiency using the WAVES model examples from the Loess Plateau of China.
Kang Shaozhong (SIAM), Lu Zhang (Cbr), Yinli Liang (ISWC), Warrick Dawes (Cbr) (3, 4)
7. Water balance modelling in the Chungwu catchment.
Mingbin Huang (ISWC) and Xiaoping Zhang (ISWC) (4, 12)
Withdrawn 8th August 2000
8. Relationships between crop yield, evapotranspiration, and water use efficiency under different irrigation management.
Shaozhong Kang (ISWC), Lu Zhang (Cbr), Yinli Liang (ISWC) and Huanjie Cai (Uni in Yangling) (3, 4)
9. The main processes causing landscape degradation.
Rob Fitzpatrick (Adl) and Li Rui (ISWC) (5)
10. Soil Degradation Processes in the Adelaide Hills.
Rob Fitzpatrick (Adl) and Richard Merry (Adl) (7, 8)
11. Linking water processes to soil erosion for catchment health assessment in the Loess Plateau.
Liu Guobin (ISWC) and Yang Qinke (ISWC) (5, 8)
12. Soil acidity and alkalinity at regional scales.
Richard Merry (Adl) and Leonie Spouncer (Adl) (7, 8)
13. Soil fertility and catchment health.
Hu Chunsheng (SIAM) and Richard Merry (Adl) (7, 8)
14. Soil salinity, sodicity, waterlogging and catchment health North China Plain.
Renzhao Mao (SIAM), Rob Fitzpatrick (Adl), Lui Xiaojing (SIAM) and Phil Davies (Adl) (7, 8)
15. Balance of water and nutrients of cropland in the tableland area of the Loess Plateau
Yinli Liang (ISWC) (8, 3)
16. Element Mobility in a Mediterranean Environment.
Jim Cox (Adl) (5)
17. Space and time scales for water and soil processes.
Tim McVicar (Cbr), Phil Davies (Adl), Yang Qinke (ISWC) and Zhang Guanglu (SIAM) (9)
18. An Approach of Integrating Multi-themes Digital Maps
Qinke Yang (ISWC), Lin Han (ISWC), Xiaoping Zhang (ISWC) and Yinkui Li (Beijing Univ.) (9)
19. Applying point models across regions using areal weighting.
Jim Cox (Adl) and Phil Davies (Adl) (10, 11)
20. Regional WUE indicator mapping for the NCP.
Tim McVicar (Cbr), Zhang Guanglu (SIAM), Lu Zhang (Cbr), Huixiao Wang (Beijing) Andrew Bradford (Cbr), and Warrick Dawes (Cbr) (12)
21. A "calculate then interpolate" approach to monitor regional moisture availability.
Tim McVicar (Cbr) and David Jupp (Cbr) (12)
22. Regional land-use change responses.
Lu Zhang (Cbr) and Andrew Bradford (Cbr) (10)
23. Points to regions via toposequences in the Adelaide Hills.
Phil Davies (Adl) and Rob Fitzpatrick (Adl) (10, 11)
24. Soil risk assessment in the North China Plain.
Zhang Guanglu (SIAM) and Phil Davies (Adl) (10, 11)
25. Erosion risk assessment in the Loess Plateau.
Yang Qinke (ISWC), Xiaoping Zhang (ISWC), Li Rui (ISWC) and Liangjun Hu (ISWC) (10, 11)
26. Assessing Farm Taxation Levels using GIS in Chungwu County.
Yang Qinke (ISWC), Tim McVicar (Cbr), Li Rui (ISWC) and Zhang Xiaoping (ISWC) (9, 13)
27. A guide to Environmental Indicators
Joe Walker (Cbr), Liu Guobin (ISWC) and Hu Chunsheng (SIAM)
(acknowledgments to many) (13, 14)
28. Using indicators to address regional/industry issues.
Joe Walker (Cbr), Rob Fitzpatrick (Adl), Doug Reuter (Adl) and Graeme Schwenke (NSW Ag Tamworth) (13, 14)
29. Farm to County; County to Province; Province to Central Government: An example from Chungwu and Ansai Counties, Shaanxi Province, China.
Li Rui (ISWC), Liu Guobin (ISWC) and Yinli Liang (ISWC) (13,14)
30. Farms to county - the Nanpi experience.
Lui Xiaojing (SIAM) and local county leader (13, 14)
31. Adelaide Hills and Dundas Tablelands- Landcare and Technology Transfer
Rob Fitzpatrick (Adl), Bill Munday (Local Landcare AH) and Rob Norton (Local Landcare DT) (13, 14)
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